LEAD AND ZINC WHITES: EVOLUTION OF PRODUCTION METHODS AND CHRONOLOGICAL PERIODS OF USE IN PAINTINGS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32782/uad.2025.1.1Keywords:
lead white, zinc white, painting, pigments, paints’ composition, X-ray fluorescence analysisAbstract
The aim of this study is to investigate the historical development of production methods for lead and zinc whites, analyze their prevalence in artists’ palettes, and determine the chronological periods of their use in paintings from the 16th to the 21st century. The methodology is based on a comprehensive approach that combines theoretical-methodological and comparative analyses with technological research methods. The study demonstrates that advancements in the chemical industry and the introduction of new technologies significantly influenced the evolution of white pigment production. The research has identified trends in the emergence and dissemination of zinc white in artists' paints and examined the impact of governmental restrictions on the use of lead white. For the first time, based on an analysis of literary sources and the elemental composition of whites in more than 290 dated paintings, the chronological periods of lead and zinc white usage in artists’ palettes have been determined. The findings indicate that lead white remained the main white pigment until the 1830s. Lead-zinc white began to be used from the 1850s and became widespread in painting from the 1860s. Pure zinc white appeared sporadically in artworks from the 1880s and became dominant from the the end of 1900s. Despite prohibitions and restrictions on lead white use in the art industry, pure pigment only fell out of use in the late 1930s. Lead-zinc and zinc-lead whites remained common until the 1970s and, in some European countries, until the 1990s. It has been established that lead white is still produced in limited quantities by several global companies for restoration purposes. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the production and distribution of white pigments in painting, highlighting the relevance of the study. The results presented in this article can be applied to the attribution and dating of artworks.
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